Ancient Provincial Temples of Sri Lanka & "forest monasteries"
ancient Haththikuchchi monastery to the south of Anuradhapura
There are ruins of several provincial ancient temples in Sri Lanka that are from the first millennium AD, mostly from the late Anuradhapura period (7th to 10th century), when new architectural types of monastic buildings and monasteries were introduced, one of them being the Pansukulika forest monasteries, which consisted of meditation platforms and Ayurvedic halls and bathing ponds, but remained void of stupas and other places of worship of cult objects. Most monasteries from the Anuradhapura, however, have stupas and buildings for other objects of lay worship, namely Buddha statues and Bo-trees in separate buildings.
Most of them do not follow a regular pattern of ground plans nor a systematic pattern of arranging the buildings. But there is an exception. During the late Anuradhapura period a new type of systematically planned monasteries emerged. They are called Pabbata Viharas, which translates to "hill temples". Actually, Pabbata Viharas are not build on hillocks, but their main buildings for ritual purposes are erected an artificial elevated platform, whereas the dwellings of the monks where arranged symmetrically around that elevated ceremonial center. The latter consisted usually of four types of buildings that have been characteristic features of Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka ever since (though usually not following that ancient symmetrical pattern), namely hall for higher ordination, stupa, image house with a Buddha sculpture, and Bo-tree terrace. These four types of ritual places are aranged in the way of the dots of a "four" on a cube. Sometimes, a fifth building occurs, a second meeting hall of the monks, this one not for highest ceremonies but for everyday assemblies. Then the five buildings sharing the elevated platform in the center of the monastic complex are arranged like a "five" on a cube. There are remnants of numerous Pabbata Viharas, in the capital Anuradhapura and in provincial rural areas alike. But from a touristical perspective, they are not highly attractive, because only foundation walls can be seen at most of those places today. Actually, only very few examples exist where the said symmetrical pattern can clearly be seen today. The most noteworthy example in this respect is Menikdena near Dambulla. But Menikdena is not a spectacular ancient site, either. So even the best specimen of a Pabbata Vihara is almost never visited by foreign guests.
Nonetheless, it makes sense to keep this type of monastic architecture in mind, because other forest monasteries from the same period, called Aranya Senansanayas, and other ancient provincual temples that are indeed remarkable attractions, usually show the same types of ritual buildings, though not arranged in a symmetrical pattern on a shared elevated terrace. But stupas and image houses and terraces or shrines for worshipping Bo-trees can be seen at almost all temples from that period except from the said Pansukulika monasteries. One very charming example of a provincial forest temple from that late Anuradhapura period (and partly earlier) is Haththikuchchi in Rayangane, halfway between Anuradhapura and Yapahuwa. The best example of a Bo-tree shrine is found in the same region, namely in Nillakgama. The Bo-tree of Nillakgama does not exist any more, but it was the core element of the temple. This type of temple, with the trunk of a Bo-tree growing in the middle of the building that has an opening in the roof and is sheltered by the canopy of the tree, is called Bodhgara, which literally translates to "Bo-tree house". In the southern region of the island, an ancient monastery with a symmetrical groundplan similar to that of a Pabbata Vihara, but without the characteristic feature of a shared central platform of all ritual buildings, is Lahugala near Pottuvil and Arugam Bay. Lahugala does not have a Bo-tree house, but an elaborate platform that once carried a Bo-tree. This platform has carvings and has often been wrongly interpreted as the terrace of wooden hall that served for the marriage festival of Kinf Kavantissa, the father of Dutugemunu. The monastery in Lahugala is also named after this marriage "Maghul Viharaya", marriage temple. One significant example of an ancient forest monastery is the Namal Pokuna complex of the Dimbulagala mountain near Polonnaruwa. This monastery played a major role in the history of Theravada Buddhism in two ways. The chief monk of Dimbulaga was the main agent of a reform of the island's entire Buddhist order under Parakramabahu I in the 12th century, which made Theravada the only official version of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, which it has been ever since till the present day. Soon after the Sangha reform, Dimbulagala became an education center of missionaries, that became core figures in implementing Theravada Buddhism in the newly established Thai kingdoms of Southeast Asia and also inspired a Sangha reform in Myanmar.
Although almost all archaeological sites listed as "provincial monasteries" below were situated in forested areas, the name "forest monasteries", strictly speaking, emerged only after the doom of the ancient Sinhalese civilzation, after the fall of Polonnaruwa. Since the subsequent Dambandeniya period, there has been a tradition of differentiating between two kinds of monks and monasteries, the Gamavasins were the branch of the Sangha serving in the villages ("Gama" meaning "village"), whereas the Aranyavasins were the groups of reclusive monks leading lives of meditation at more isolated places ("Aranya" meaning "forest"). Forest monks and forest monasteries, however, have much longer tradition in Sri Lanka (and other Buddhist regions). And in a sense, this traditions survives till the present day: When the Syam Nikaya kine of ordination was introduced in the 18th century, it had too branches right from the beginning, Malwatta Nikaya and Asgiriya Nikaya, which roughly corresponds the differentiation between village and forest monasteries in earlier periods. Even more importantly, after Sri Lanka gained independence, new forest monasteries and meditations centers have emerged in several parts of the island, often making reviving ancient sites.
Most of them do not follow a regular pattern of ground plans nor a systematic pattern of arranging the buildings. But there is an exception. During the late Anuradhapura period a new type of systematically planned monasteries emerged. They are called Pabbata Viharas, which translates to "hill temples". Actually, Pabbata Viharas are not build on hillocks, but their main buildings for ritual purposes are erected an artificial elevated platform, whereas the dwellings of the monks where arranged symmetrically around that elevated ceremonial center. The latter consisted usually of four types of buildings that have been characteristic features of Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka ever since (though usually not following that ancient symmetrical pattern), namely hall for higher ordination, stupa, image house with a Buddha sculpture, and Bo-tree terrace. These four types of ritual places are aranged in the way of the dots of a "four" on a cube. Sometimes, a fifth building occurs, a second meeting hall of the monks, this one not for highest ceremonies but for everyday assemblies. Then the five buildings sharing the elevated platform in the center of the monastic complex are arranged like a "five" on a cube. There are remnants of numerous Pabbata Viharas, in the capital Anuradhapura and in provincial rural areas alike. But from a touristical perspective, they are not highly attractive, because only foundation walls can be seen at most of those places today. Actually, only very few examples exist where the said symmetrical pattern can clearly be seen today. The most noteworthy example in this respect is Menikdena near Dambulla. But Menikdena is not a spectacular ancient site, either. So even the best specimen of a Pabbata Vihara is almost never visited by foreign guests.
Nonetheless, it makes sense to keep this type of monastic architecture in mind, because other forest monasteries from the same period, called Aranya Senansanayas, and other ancient provincual temples that are indeed remarkable attractions, usually show the same types of ritual buildings, though not arranged in a symmetrical pattern on a shared elevated terrace. But stupas and image houses and terraces or shrines for worshipping Bo-trees can be seen at almost all temples from that period except from the said Pansukulika monasteries. One very charming example of a provincial forest temple from that late Anuradhapura period (and partly earlier) is Haththikuchchi in Rayangane, halfway between Anuradhapura and Yapahuwa. The best example of a Bo-tree shrine is found in the same region, namely in Nillakgama. The Bo-tree of Nillakgama does not exist any more, but it was the core element of the temple. This type of temple, with the trunk of a Bo-tree growing in the middle of the building that has an opening in the roof and is sheltered by the canopy of the tree, is called Bodhgara, which literally translates to "Bo-tree house". In the southern region of the island, an ancient monastery with a symmetrical groundplan similar to that of a Pabbata Vihara, but without the characteristic feature of a shared central platform of all ritual buildings, is Lahugala near Pottuvil and Arugam Bay. Lahugala does not have a Bo-tree house, but an elaborate platform that once carried a Bo-tree. This platform has carvings and has often been wrongly interpreted as the terrace of wooden hall that served for the marriage festival of Kinf Kavantissa, the father of Dutugemunu. The monastery in Lahugala is also named after this marriage "Maghul Viharaya", marriage temple. One significant example of an ancient forest monastery is the Namal Pokuna complex of the Dimbulagala mountain near Polonnaruwa. This monastery played a major role in the history of Theravada Buddhism in two ways. The chief monk of Dimbulaga was the main agent of a reform of the island's entire Buddhist order under Parakramabahu I in the 12th century, which made Theravada the only official version of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, which it has been ever since till the present day. Soon after the Sangha reform, Dimbulagala became an education center of missionaries, that became core figures in implementing Theravada Buddhism in the newly established Thai kingdoms of Southeast Asia and also inspired a Sangha reform in Myanmar.
Although almost all archaeological sites listed as "provincial monasteries" below were situated in forested areas, the name "forest monasteries", strictly speaking, emerged only after the doom of the ancient Sinhalese civilzation, after the fall of Polonnaruwa. Since the subsequent Dambandeniya period, there has been a tradition of differentiating between two kinds of monks and monasteries, the Gamavasins were the branch of the Sangha serving in the villages ("Gama" meaning "village"), whereas the Aranyavasins were the groups of reclusive monks leading lives of meditation at more isolated places ("Aranya" meaning "forest"). Forest monks and forest monasteries, however, have much longer tradition in Sri Lanka (and other Buddhist regions). And in a sense, this traditions survives till the present day: When the Syam Nikaya kine of ordination was introduced in the 18th century, it had too branches right from the beginning, Malwatta Nikaya and Asgiriya Nikaya, which roughly corresponds the differentiation between village and forest monasteries in earlier periods. Even more importantly, after Sri Lanka gained independence, new forest monasteries and meditations centers have emerged in several parts of the island, often making reviving ancient sites.
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